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4 USEPA. Prospective study: the benefits and costs of the Clean Air Act, 1990 to 2020. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2011. www.epa.gov/clean-air-act-overview/benefits-and-costs-clean-air-act-1990-2020-second- prospective-study [Accessed 3 April 2015]. 5 USEPA. Manual and appendices for BenMAP 4.0. United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2012. 6 World Health Organization. HRAPIE: Health risks of air pollution in Europe – HRAPIE project. Recommendations for concentration–response functions for cost–benefit analysis of particulate matter, ozone and nitrogen dioxide. Bonn: WHO, 2013. www.euro.who.int/en/health-topics/environment-and-health/air-quality/publications/2013/health-risks-of-air- pollution-in-europe-hrapie-project-recommendations-for-concentrationresponse-functions-for-costbenefit-analysis- of-particulate-matter,-ozone-and-nitrogen-dioxide/ [Accessed 15 December 2015]. 7 Crouse DL, Peters PA, van Donkelaar A et al. Risk of nonaccidental and cardiovascular mortality in relation to long- term exposure to low concentrations of fine particulate matter: a Canadian national-level cohort study. Environ Health Perspect 2012;120:708–14. 8 World Health Organization. Review of evidence on health aspects of air pollution – REVIHAAP Project. Bonn: WHO, 2013. www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/193108/REVIHAAP-Final-technical-report-final-version.pdf/ [Accessed 2 December 2015]. 9 Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants. Working group on the quantification of mortality associated with long-term average concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ): Note of the meeting held on Monday 6 July 2015. London: Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants, 2015. www.gov.uk/government/publications/nitrogen-dioxide- interim-view-on-long-term-average-concentrations-and-mortality [Accessed 15 December 2015]. 10 Gowers AM, Miller BG, Stedman JR. Estimating local mortality burdens associated with particulate air pollution (report no PHE-CRCE-010). London: Public Health England, 2014. www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/ attachment_data/file/332854/PHE_CRCE_010.pdf/ [Accessed 15 December 2015]. 11 Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs. Valuing impacts on air quality: Updates in valuing changes in emissions of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and concentrations of nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ). London: Defra, 2015. www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/460401/air-quality-econanalysis-nitrogen- interim-guidance.pdf [Accessed 15 December 2015]. 12 Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants. Nitrogen dioxide: interim view on long-term average concentrations and mortality. London: Health Protection Agency, 2015. www.gov.uk/government/publications/nitrogen-dioxide- interim-view-on-long-term-average-concentrations-and-mortality [Accessed 17 December 2015]. 13 Lim SS, Vos T, Flaxman AD et al. A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990–2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010. Lancet 2012;380:2224–60. 14 Holland M. Implementation of the HRAPIE Recommendations for European Air Pollution CBA work. Report to European Commission DG Environment, 2014. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/pdf/CBA%20HRAPIE% 20implement.pdf [Accessed 18 December 2015]. 15 Holland M. Cost–benefit analysis of final policy scenarios for the EU Clean Air Package (corresponding to IIASA TSAP report no 11). Report to European Commission DG Environment, 2014. http://ec.europa.eu/environment/air/ pdf/TSAP%20CBA.pdf [Accessed 21 December 2015]. 16 European Environment Agency. Cost of air pollution from European industrial facilities 2008–12. Luxembourg: European Environment Agency, 2014. www.eea.europa.eu/publications/costs-of-air-pollution-2008-2012/ [Accessed 2 April 2015]. 17 Health Protection Agency. Radon and public health: Report of the independent Advisory Group on Ionising Radiation. Chilton: Health Protection Agency, 2009. http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20110109132023/http://hpa. org.uk/web/hpawebfile/hpaweb_c/1243838496865/ [Accessed 2 April 2015]. 18 Global Burden of Disease Study 2010 (GBD 2010) data downloads. http://ghdx.healthdata.org/global-burden-disease- study-2010-gbd-2010-data-downloads [Accessed 27 May 2015]. 19 Jamrozik K. Estimate of deaths attributable to passive smoking among UK adults: database analysis. BMJ 2005;330:812. 20 Royal College of Physicians. Passive smoking and children. A report by the Tobacco Advisory Group of the Royal College of Physicians. London: RCP, 2010. www.rcplondon.ac.uk/sites/default/files/documents/passive-smoking-and- children.pdf/ [Accessed 2 April 2015]. © Royal College of Physicians 2016 91 6 The heavy cost of air pollution

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