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3 Committee on the Medical Effects of Air Pollutants. Nitrogen dioxide: interim view on long-term average concentrations and mortality. London: Health Protection Agency, 2015. www.gov.uk/government/publications/nitrogen-dioxide- interim-view-on-long-term-average-concentrations-and-mortality [Accessed 17 December 2015]. 4 Dockery DW, Pope CA 3rd, Xu X et al. An association between air pollution and mortality in six U.S. cities. N Engl J Med 1993;329:1753–9. 5 Laden F, Schwartz J, Speizer FE, Dockery DW. Reduction in fine particulate air pollution and mortality: extended follow-up of the Harvard Six Cities study. Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2006;173:667–72. 6 Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution. Twenty-sixth report. The urban environment. London: HMSO, 2007. www.rcep.org.uk/reports/26-urban/documents/urban-environment.pdf [Accessed 30 November 2015]. 7 Department for Transport. Annual road traffic estimates: Great Britain 2012. London: DfT, 2013. www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/255742/road-traffic-statistics-2012.pdf [Accessed 30 November 2015]. 8 Department for Transport. Road traffic forecasts 2015. London: DfT, 2015. www.gov.uk/government/publications/road-traffic-forecasts-2015 [Accessed 30 November 2015]. 9 Carslaw DC, Rhys-Tyler G. New insights from comprehensive on-road measurements of NOx, NO 2 and NH 3 from vehicle emission remote sensing in London, UK. Atmos Environ 2013;81:339–47. 10 Society of Motor Manufacturers and Traders. New car CO 2 report 2014. The 13th report. London: SMMT, 2014. www.smmt.co.uk/2014/03/new-car-co2-report-2014/ [Accessed 30 November 2015]. 11 Cames M, Helmers E. Critical evaluation of the European diesel car boom – global comparison, environmental effects and various national strategies. Environ Sci Eur 2013;25:15. 12 Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs. Air pollution in the UK 2014. London: Defra, 2014. http://uk- air.defra.gov.uk/library/annualreport/index [Accessed 21 December 2015]. 13 Noble SR, Horstwood MSA, Davy P et al. Evolving Pb isotope signatures of London airborne particulate matter (PM 10 ) – constraints from on-filter and solution-mode MC-ICP-MS. J Environ Monit 2008;10:830–6, and references therein. 14 Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution. Ninth report. Lead in the environment. London: HMSO, 1983. www.rcep.org.uk/reports/09-lead/1983-09lead.pdf [Accessed 1 December 2015]. 15 European Environment Agency. Late lessons from early warnings: science, precaution, innovation. Copenhagen: EEA, 2013. www.eea.europa.eu/publications/late-lessons-2 [Accessed 1 December 2015]. 16 Jones AM, Harrison RM, Barratt B, Fuller, G. A large reduction in airborne particle number concentrations at the time of the introduction of 'sulphur free' diesel and the London Low Emission Zone. Atmos Environ 2012;50:129–38. 17 Atkinson RW, Fuller GW, Anderson HR, Harrison RM, Armstrong B. Urban ambient particle metrics and health: a time-series analysis. Epidemiology 2010;21:501–11. 18 Hedley AJ, Wong CM, Thach TQ et al. Cardiorespiratory and all-cause mortality after restrictions on sulphur content of fuel in Hong Kong: an intervention study. Lancet 2002;360:1646–52. 19 Holman C, Harrison R, Querol X. Review of the efficacy of low emission zones to improve urban air quality in European cities. Atmos Environ 2015;111:161–9. 20 Wolff H. Keep your clunker in the suburb: low emission zones and adoption of green vehicles. Econ J 2014;124:F481–F512. 21 Malina C, Scheffler F. The impact of low emission zones on particulate matter concentration and public health. Transp Res Part A Policy Pract 2015;77:372–85. 22 Department for Transport. National travel survey: England 2013. London: DfT, 2014. www.gov.uk/government/statistics/national-travel-survey-2013 [Accessed 30 November 2015]. 23 Rabl A, De Nazelle A. Benefits of shift from car to active transport. Transp Policy 2012;19:121–31. 24 Viana M, Hammingh P, Colette A et al. Impact of maritime transport emissions on coastal air quality in Europe. Atmos Environ 2014;90:96–105. 25 Carslaw DC, Beevers SD, Ropkins K, Bell MC. Detecting and quantifying aircraft and other on-airport contributions to ambient nitrogen oxides in the vicinity of a large international airport. Atmos Environ 2006;40:5424–34. 26 Dockery DW, Rich DQ, Goodman PG et al. Effect of air pollution control on mortality and hospital admissions in Ireland. Res Rep Health Eff Inst 2013;176:3–109. 27 Fuller GW, Tremper AH, Baker TD, Yttri KE, Butterfield D. Contribution of wood burning to PM 10 in London. Atmos Environ 2014;87:87–94. 1 Air pollution in our changing world © Royal College of Physicians 2016 13

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