Issue link: https://hi.iaq.net/i/670243
is not observed unless it is specifically looked for over a long period of time. It is likely that maternal air pollution exposure interacts with other stressors in pregnancy such as poor diet, tobacco smoking and exposure to certain drugs. Moreover, the evidence for the effects of air pollution on cardiovascular disease and death in later life is very strong, so it is logical to conclude that reducing exposure to air pollution from as early an age as possible will be beneficial in order to reduce morbidity and early death. 3.6 References 1 Wick P, Malek A, Manser P et al. Barrier capacity of human placenta for nanosized materials. Environ Health Perspect 2010;118:432–6. 2 van den Hooven EH, Pierik FH, de Kluizenaar Y et al. Air pollution exposure and markers of placental growth and function: the generation R study. Environ Health Perspect 2012;120:1753–9. 3 Ha S, Hu H, Roussos-Ross D et al. The effects of air pollution on adverse birth outcomes. Environ Res 2014;134: 198–204. 4 Shah PS, Balkhair T, Knowledge Synthesis Group on Determinants of Preterm/LBW births. Air pollution and birth outcomes: a systematic review. Environ Int 2011;37:498–516. 5 Glinianaia SV, Rankin J, Bell R et al. Particulate air pollution and fetal health: a systematic review of the epidemiologic evidence. Epidemiology 2004;15:36–45. 6 World Health Organization. Review of evidence on health aspects of air pollution – REVIHAAP Project. Bonn: WHO, 2013. www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/193108/REVIHAAP-Final-technical-report-final-version.pdf/ [Accessed 2 December 2015]. 7 Amegah AK, Quansah R, Jaakkola JJK. Household air pollution from solid fuel use and risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis of the empirical evidence. PLoS One 2014;9:e113920. 8 Pedersen M, Giorgis-Allemand L, Bernard C et al. Ambient air pollution and low birthweight: a European cohort study (ESCAPE). Lancet Respir Med 2013;1:695–704. 9 Risnes KR, Vatten LJ, Baker JL et al. Birthweight and mortality in adulthood: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Int J Epidemiol 2011;40:647–61. 10 Luyckx VA, Bertram JF, Brenner BM et al. Effect of fetal and child health on kidney development and long-term risk of hypertension and kidney disease. Lancet 2013;382:273–83. 11 Canfield RL, Henderson CR Jr, Cory-Slechta DA et al. Intellectual impairment in children with blood lead concentrations below 10 microg per deciliter. New Engl J Med 2003;348:1517–26. 12 Perera F, Weiland K, Neidell M, Wang S. Prenatal exposure to airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and IQ: estimated benefit of pollution reduction. J Public Health Policy 2014;35:327–36. 13 Perera F, Hemminki K, Jedrychowski W et al. In utero DNA damage from environmental pollution is associated with somatic gene mutation in newborns. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2002;11:1134–7. 14 Stick SM, Burton PR, Gurrin L, Sly PD, LeSouëf PN. Effects of maternal smoking during pregnancy and a family history of asthma on respiratory function in newborn infants. Lancet 1996;348:1060–4. 15 Latzin P, Röösli M, Huss A, Kuehni CE, Frey U. Air pollution during pregnancy and lung function in newborns: a birth cohort study. Eur Respir J 2009;33:594–603. 16 Jedrychowski WA, Perera FP, Maugeri U et al. Effect of prenatal exposure to fine particulate matter on ventilatory lung function of preschool children of non-smoking mothers. Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol 2010;24:492–501. 17 Sonnenschein-van der Voort AM, de Kluizenaar Y, Jaddoe VW et al. Air pollution, fetal and infant tobacco smoke exposure, and wheezing in preschool children: a population-based prospective birth cohort. Environ Health 2012;11:91. 18 MacIntyre EA, Gehring U, Mölter A et al. Air pollution and respiratory infections during early childhood: an analysis of 10 European birth cohorts within the ESCAPE Project. Environ Health Perspect 2014;122:107–13. 19 Woodruff TJ, Darrow LA, Parker JD. Air pollution and postneonatal infant mortality in the United States, 1999–2002. Environ Health Perspect 2008;116:110–15. 20 Dick S, Friend A, Dynes K et al. A systematic review of associations between environmental exposures and development of asthma in children aged up to 9 years. BMJ Open 2014;4:e006554. 3 In the beginning: protecting our future generations © Royal College of Physicians 2016 47